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<P><FONT SIZE=2>Gari Ledyard's contribution's seems to minimize the repression after March<BR>
1, 1919. Below is an excerpt that provides details of the post-March 1<BR>
repression (from my forthcoming book, Uprising! South Korean Social<BR>
Movements in the 20th Century--Vol. 1 of Asia's Unknown Uprisings)<BR>
<BR>
Despite the pacific character of protests, Japanese colonial troops killed<BR>
hundreds of people and imprisoned many more. According to official Japanese<BR>
reports, 533 protesters were killed, 1,409 wounded and 12,522 arrested<BR>
between March and December 1919. Koreans counted far more causalities: by<BR>
the end of May, Japanese repression is said to have claimed 7,509 lives,<BR>
with an additional 15,961 injured, and more than 46,948 people imprisoned,<BR>
many with sentences ranging from 10-15 years.[1] <#_ftn1> Not surprisingly,<BR>
official Japanese figures are lower, maintaining 19,525 people were arrested<BR>
in these protests.<BR>
<BR>
An official Japanese report claimed at least ³20,000 demonstrators have been<BR>
armed with clubs, kitchen knives and similar weapons,² but it is hard to<BR>
know if this was a mendacious attempt to justify the severe measures<BR>
colonial authorities took against generally peaceful protesters.[2] <#_ftn2><BR>
Japanese newspapers proclaimed that the ³stirring up of the minds of Koreans<BR>
is the sin of the American missionaries. This uprising is their work.²[3]<BR>
<#_ftn3> Churches were often involved in the protests, but so was every<BR>
organization of Korean civil society: Buddhists, Chondogyo, womenıs<BR>
associations, and student groups all mobilized. The protests spread to<BR>
Manchuria, Russia and other places where Koreans lived.[4] <#_ftn4><BR>
<BR>
Although all the esteemed signers of the declaration were male, women<BR>
prominently formed the front of many of the marches on March 1. Their<BR>
underground network Songjuk-hoe (Pine and Bamboo Association) had been<BR>
formed in Pyongyang in 1913. Female participation in the March 1 Movement<BR>
³revealed a potential strength that had been latent in the traditional<BR>
society.²[5] <#_ftn5> To consider the astonishing mobilization of a million<BR>
Koreans on the same day while keeping it secret from Japanese troops and<BR>
officials is to realize the extraordinary strength of Korean civil society.<BR>
<BR>
One of the movementıs teenage martyrs, Yu Kwan-sun, became especially well<BR>
known. After the protests began, she returned to her hometown, Chiryong in<BR>
South Chuongchong province. On April 2, she handed out Korean flags and<BR>
publicly called for independence. A year later, on the uprisingıs first<BR>
anniversary, she again called out for the countryıs independence. For her<BR>
outspoken efforts, she was arrested and during her trial she refused to<BR>
remain quiet, instead throwing chairs at the judges and chanting ³Mansei!²<BR>
She was later tortured to death. Yuıs body was never recovered, although her<BR>
missionary school claims to have found her in scattered pieces.<BR>
<BR>
One church reported that 2,656 of its members (including 531 women) were<BR>
arrested in 1919 for actions related to Korean independence. What for some<BR>
was the ³modernization² of police under Japanese colonial rule‹their<BR>
efficient combination and expansion‹was a disaster for most Koreans. Within<BR>
a year after the uprising, the number of police stations rose from 151 to<BR>
251, that of substations in the same period from 686 to 2,495.[6] <#_ftn6><BR>
The extent of Japanese repression may be debated but not its barbaric<BR>
character. There are numerous eyewitness accounts.[7] <#_ftn7> On April 15,<BR>
1919, all the village residents in Jeam-ri (near Suwon in Gyeonggi<BR>
province), including at least 29 persons, were rounded up in the church.<BR>
With the doors barred, the building was set on fire, killing them all. In 15<BR>
other nearby villages, more than 317 houses were burned‹bringing the total<BR>
number of killed to hundreds‹possibly more than 1,000.[8] <#_ftn8> For<BR>
nearly a century, Japan denied that any such Jeam-ri incident took place,<BR>
but in 2007, proof of a massacre of civilians and its cover-up was found in<BR>
the diary of the commander of Japanese military forces, Taro Utsunomiya, and<BR>
published by Japanese newspaper Asahi Shimbun and the Korean paper,<BR>
Hankyoreh Sinmun.[9] <#_ftn9><BR>
<BR>
Like most uprisings that do not seize control of the government, the March 1<BR>
Movement led to increased state repression, but it also deeply affected many<BR>
people and paved the way for the next steps in the movementıs evolution of<BR>
forms of organization and contestation of power. A few weeks after March 1,<BR>
a provisional government of Korea was established in Shanghai representing a<BR>
wide spectrum of political perspectives; armed groups blossomed in Manchuria<BR>
and fought a continuous struggle against Japan; and forms of cultural<BR>
resistance intensified inside Korea. Years later, Kim Yong-bock wrote that,<BR>
³The event of March First Independence Movement lives in the hearts and<BR>
minds of the Korean people, and it has become a permanent historical symbol<BR>
for them...It was the first peopleıs movement in Korean history, in which an<BR>
axial transition occurred in a revolutionary way.²[10] <#_ftn10><BR>
<BR>
In sheer numbers, the proliferation of social movement organizations after<BR>
the 1919 uprising is noteworthy.<BR>
<BR>
Every uprising simultaneously reveals the essential problems of a social<BR>
order and points toward their solution. The problem raised by the March 1<BR>
Movement was international in scope, and Koreaıs provisional government in<BR>
Shanghai served as a stimulus for Chinese students and intellectuals. The<BR>
victorious Allies at the Versailles peace conference refused Chinaıs demand<BR>
for restoration of territories seized by Germany. Instead, in all their<BR>
wisdom, the leaders of the world were intent upon ceding those territories<BR>
to Japan. As soon as that news reached Beijing, several thousand students<BR>
rallied in Tiananmen Square on May 4. Their call to action, distributed<BR>
throughout China, included an explicit reference to the Korean uprising of<BR>
March 1: ³The Koreans in their struggle for independence also cried, ŒGive<BR>
us our wish, or give us death.ı²[11] <#_ftn11> Here is direct evidence of<BR>
how China's May 4 Movement drew inspiration from the courageous uprising of<BR>
their Korean neighbors. Students began the Chinese movement, which by<BR>
mid-May turned into a general strike of students in dozens of cities.[12]<BR>
<#_ftn12> Workers and farmers across the country quickly joined. As the May<BR>
4 Movement intensified, people boycotted Japanese goods in major cities and<BR>
succeeded in getting some of the worst collaborators removed from positions<BR>
of power. From nationalist resistance to Japan, the movement soon changed<BR>
into one against feudalism with demands including greater civil<BR>
liberties.[13] <#_ftn13> The pattern is familiar: students spark popular<BR>
upheavals for democracy, which, in turn, generate workers and farmers<BR>
movements that move beyond the immediate demands of the movementıs infancy.<BR>
<BR>
Although only uncovered at the end of the 20th century, the pattern of the<BR>
international diffusion of protest and the escalating demands made from the<BR>
grassroots has a long history. One report in 1919 noted: ³It is true that<BR>
the longing for freedom and independence now finding expression in many<BR>
parts of the world, in Egypt and Ireland in particular, has exercised<BR>
powerful influence over the ideas and thoughts of many Korean young men and<BR>
women, who are sufficiently educated to be able to read newspapers.²[14]<BR>
<#_ftn14><BR>
<BR>
<BR>
[1] <#_ftnref1> Park Eun-sik, Agony: Korean History. Park was second<BR>
president of Koreaıs provisional government. Tabulating the fierce<BR>
repression unleashed by the Emperor to punish Koreans, historian Kang<BR>
Man-gil counted 7,500 citizens killed, 16,000 injured, and more than 46,000<BR>
arrested. Kang Man-gil, A History of Contemporary Korea (Kent, UK: Global<BR>
Oriental, 2005) p. 29.<BR>
<BR>
[2] <#_ftnref2> The Korean ³Independence² Agitation (Seoul: Seoul Press<BR>
Office, 1919) Part 2, p. 17. This strongly pro-Japanese document is<BR>
contained in Harvard Universityıs Widener Library Depository.<BR>
<BR>
[3] <#_ftnref3> Quoted in Shannon McCune, The Mansei Movement, p. 16.<BR>
<BR>
[4] <#_ftnref4> Ki-baik Lee, A New History of Korea (Cambridge:<BR>
Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1984) p. 344.<BR>
<BR>
[5] <#_ftnref5> Kim Yung-Chung, ³Womenıs Movement in Modern Korea, ³ in<BR>
Challenges for Women: Womenıs Studies in Korea, edited by Chung Sei-wha<BR>
(Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press, 1986) p. 90.<BR>
<BR>
[6] <#_ftnref6> Stearns, p. 783.<BR>
<BR>
[7] <#_ftnref7> For one see<BR>
<A HREF="http://www.korea.net/News/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20070228038&part=112&S">http://www.korea.net/News/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20070228038&part=112&S</A><BR>
earchDay=&source=<BR>
<BR>
[8] <#_ftnref8> British missionary Dr. Frank W. Schofield, took photos of<BR>
the carnage, which were published by the Oriental Relations Committee of the<BR>
Christian Federation Association as ³The Korea Situation² in July 1919.<BR>
<BR>
[9] <#_ftnref9> On March 1, 2007, some called for renewed inquiry into the<BR>
massacre and the colonial governmentıs cover-up.<BR>
<BR>
[10] <#_ftnref10> Kim Yong-bock quoted in Christine Lienemann-Perrin, p.<BR>
199.<BR>
<BR>
[11] <#_ftnref11> Chow Tse-tsung, The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual<BR>
Revolution in Modern China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967) p.<BR>
107.<BR>
<BR>
[12] <#_ftnref12> See Chow, pp. 139-144.<BR>
<BR>
[13] <#_ftnref13> Nishi Masayuki, ³March 1 and May 4, 1919 in Korea, China<BR>
and Japan: Toward an International History of East Asian Independence<BR>
Movements,² International Herald Tribune/Asahi Shinbun, October 29, 2007.<BR>
Posted on Japan Focus website on October 31, 2007.<BR>
<BR>
[14] <#_ftnref14> The Korean ³Independence² Agitation, Part 2, p. 15.<BR>
<BR>
George Katsiaficas<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
> From: <gkl1@columbia.edu><BR>
> Reply-To: Korean Studies Discussion List <koreanstudies@koreaweb.ws><BR>
> Date: Mon, 06 Sep 2010 20:48:43 -0400<BR>
> To: <koreanstudies@koreaweb.ws><BR>
> Subject: Re: [KS] Official end of WWII in Asia<BR>
><BR>
> Gari Ledyard<BR>
<BR>
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